The Three Departments and Six Ministries system was a tightly organized central official system in China's feudal society. The Three Departments referred to the Chancellery, the Department of State Affairs, and the Secretariat, while the Six Ministries were the Ministry of Personnel, Ministry of War, Ministry of Rites, Ministry of Justice (originally the Ministry of General Affairs, later renamed), Ministry of Revenue (originally the Ministry of Finance, later renamed), and Ministry of Works. This system was formally established during the reign of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty and was primarily responsible for overseeing the formulation, review, and execution of central government decrees and policies.
Before Emperor Wen of Sui formally established the Three Departments and Six Ministries system, it underwent a long process of development and evolution.
The Department of State Affairs originated in the Qin Dynasty, when the rulers established the position of Imperial Secretary under the Chamberlain for the Imperial Clan to oversee official documents, and this office was subsequently retained. During the Western Han Dynasty, Emperor Wu of Han curtailed the power of the Outer Court led by the Chancellor and established an Inner Court headed by the Grand General, which took over the authority to manage military and state affairs. Communication between the Inner and Outer Courts was handled by the Imperial Secretary, originally under the Chamberlain for the Imperial Clan, and the Palace Attendant. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, the court established the Imperial Secretariat to oversee the administrative affairs of all officials, with its head titled the Imperial Secretary-in-Chief; however, at that time, the Imperial Secretariat remained under the jurisdiction of the Chamberlain for the Imperial Clan and had limited authority.
At the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty, Cao Cao appointed himself as Chancellor, transferring the Ministry of Personnel and Selection Department, originally under the Steward's Office, to his direct control, and moving the Inner Court established by Emperor Wu of Han to the Outer Court, marking the beginning of the establishment of the Imperial Secretariat. After Cao Pi came to power, he found the authority of officials like the Imperial Secretary too great, so he based his new institution on the Secretarial Office, which Cao Cao had set up to handle confidential documents, creating the Central Secretariat responsible for managing secrets and drafting and issuing imperial decrees, with its highest administrative officer being the Central Secretariat Director. Cao Pi also merged the Cavalier Attendants of the Qin Dynasty with the Palace Attendants of the Han Dynasty, calling them "Cavalier Attendants-in-Ordinary," and established the Cavalier Attendants Office. This office, along with the Palace Guard Office, was responsible for protecting the emperor while also checking the power of the Central Secretariat. During the reign of Sima Pi of the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the Palace Guard Office and the Central Secretariat were merged into the Chancellery, which included positions such as Attendant-in-Ordinary, Gentleman Attendant of the Yellow Gate, Palace Attendant, and Cavalier Attendant-in-Ordinary. In the Northern Dynasties, the Chancellery was the most important administrative department, responsible for participating in decisions on military and state affairs.
Until the late Northern and Southern Dynasties, the three departments—Menxia, Zhongshu, and Shangshu—each handled their own affairs independently without forming an integrated system. The heads of these three departments were all called "Chancellor," though their scope of power varied depending on the changes of dynasties.
After establishing the Sui Dynasty, Emperor Wen Yang Jian abolished the Six Offices set up by the Northern Zhou, restored the old systems of the Han and Wei dynasties, and established the Three Masters (Grand Protector, Grand Tutor, and Grand Preceptor), the Three Dukes (Minister of Works, Minister of Education, and Grand Commandant), and the Five Departments (Central Secretariat, Chancellery, Department of State Affairs, Palace Library, and Inner Palace Service). The Three Masters were largely symbolic positions without real power, awarded only to highly respected senior officials. The Three Dukes also held no actual authority, merely participating in state affairs as advisors. The true supreme governing body was the Five Departments. Among them, the Palace Library only managed books and calendars with no real power, while the Inner Palace Service was a eunuch agency handling daily palace affairs, also without authority. Thus, the Chancellery, Central Secretariat, and Department of State Affairs were the institutions that truly wielded power.
The Chancellery was an advisory and remonstrance institution responsible for reviewing government decrees, returning the emperor's improper edicts, and correcting errors in officials' memorials. Its chief officers were two Nayan (Receivers of Words), with subordinate officials including the Jishi Huangmen Shilang (Attendant Gentlemen of the Yellow Gate for Rectifying Memorials), Jianyi Dafu (Grand Masters of Remonstrance), Zhisanqi Changshi (Directors of the Regular Attendants), and Sanqi Changshi (Regular Attendants).
The Central Secretariat was the central decree-issuing agency, primarily responsible for drafting the emperor's edicts. Its chief officials were the Director and the Chief, but later the Director position was abolished, leaving only the Chief. Subordinate officials included the Communication Attendants, who managed the proclamation of memorials, and the Drafting Attendants, who were responsible for composing decrees and orders.
The Department of State Affairs was the highest executive body handling daily government affairs, headed by the Director of the Department and the Left and Right Vice Directors. Under it were six ministries: Personnel, Military, Revenue, Justice, Finance, and Rites. Justice was later renamed the Ministry of Punishments; Finance was later renamed the Ministry of Civil Affairs, but during Li Shimin's reign, it was changed to the Ministry of Revenue to avoid a naming taboo. Each of these six ministries had specific responsibilities: the Ministry of Personnel managed the appointment, evaluation, promotion, and transfer of all officials nationwide; the Ministry of Military handled the selection of military officers and the management of weapons and warhorses; the Ministry of Finance oversaw taxes, household registrations, and land; the Ministry of Justice dealt with legal matters and criminal cases; the Ministry of Works managed construction projects; and the Ministry of Rites handled sacrifices, ceremonies, and the reception of guests from all directions.
Emperor Wen of Sui established the Three Departments and Six Ministries system, which had many benefits.
First, the three departments—the Chancellery, the Secretariat, and the Department of State Affairs—worked together to form the main governing bodies of the state. The responsibilities of the heads of these three departments were equivalent to those of the former prime minister. This marked a very clear change in China's prime ministerial system, turning the role from a single person into three people, which prevented any one prime minister from concentrating too much power and disregarding the emperor.
Secondly, the Three Departments and Six Ministries system created a division of labor in decision-making. The emperor's decrees were all made after consulting with the heads of the three departments, effectively pooling their collective wisdom. Once a decision was formed, to take formal effect, it had to go through three steps: drafting by the Zhongshu Department, review by the Menxia Department, and execution by the Shangshu Department. This ensured the prudence of decisions and minimized the occurrence of decision-making errors.
Third, the system of three departments and six ministries separated decision-making power from administrative power. The Zhongshu Sheng and Menxia Sheng were responsible for drafting and issuing imperial decrees, while the Shangshu Sheng handled their execution. This arrangement divided authority and greatly helped strengthen imperial power.
The system of three departments and six ministries could enhance the emperor's power, divide the chancellor's authority, promote administrative rationalization, and align with the interests of feudal rulers. Therefore, after its establishment by Emperor Wen of Sui, this system was continuously adopted by successive feudal dynasties.