During the reign of Emperor Huan of Han, social unrest, court corruption, and power struggles between eunuchs and relatives of the empress ultimately led to the fall of the Eastern Han Dynasty.
When eunuchs held power, civil and military officials naturally did not devote themselves wholeheartedly to serving the country; instead, many sought every means to curry favor with the eunuchs, hoping to secure official positions. Righteous students from the Imperial Academy and various prefectural and county schools were deeply outraged. Filled with patriotic ambition yet blocked by a corrupt social atmosphere, they vented their discontent by protesting against the rulers, demanding political reforms. Some upright officials also joined the student protests. These individuals questioned national policies and the emperor's governing ability, calling for the dismissal of corrupt officials, the abolition of eunuch authority, and the appointment of honest and capable men.
As early as the reign of Emperor Shun of the Han Dynasty, there were people who opposed the monopolization of power by imperial relatives and eunuchs, but the strength of these men of ambition was insufficient to influence the entire nation. Before Emperor Shun, many loyal officials had also advised the emperor to weaken the power of the imperial relatives, but unfortunately the emperor did not adopt their suggestions. By the time Emperor Huan ascended the throne, Grand General Liang Ji wantonly manipulated state affairs, arousing widespread discontent among the people and officials. It was at that time that many Imperial Academy students and officials began to join the camp opposing the imperial relatives and eunuchs.
Seeing that the Eastern Han Dynasty was about to be destroyed by the eunuchs, Grand Commandant Chen Fan and Minister of Works Liu Mao were extremely anxious. Together, they wrote a memorial to Emperor Huan of Han, hoping he would stop the eunuchs from acting recklessly and forbid them from interfering in state affairs. However, Emperor Huan completely ignored Chen Fan and Liu Mao's words, scolded them harshly, and drove them out. Liu Mao was so frightened that he dared not submit any more memorials, but Chen Fan, unafraid of powerful opposition, repeatedly pleaded with the emperor to prioritize the nation's interests. He even cited the examples of Shen Tu Jia and Dong Xuan from previous dynasties, hoping the emperor would pardon the upright officials imprisoned in jail. Emperor Huan still paid no attention to Chen Fan's words, but the news of Chen Fan's memorial had already spread throughout the palace. When the eunuchs learned of it, they gnashed their teeth in hatred. However, because Chen Fan was an important meritorious official, they felt some fear and turned their malicious intentions toward other minor officials. For a time, the court officials were in constant distress.
County and prefecture officials, along with the common people, were utterly disillusioned with the imperial court's actions. They unanimously sought justice for the wronged officials, condemned the eunuchs' heinous behavior, and demanded that the emperor reclaim the power held by the eunuchs. Unexpectedly, the eunuchs aggressively dismissed the officials among the protesters and ordered the military to suppress the people. Cheng Jin, Liu Zhi, and others were thrown into prison, with the vast majority persecuted to death, while only a small number managed to escape.
There was a sorcerer named Zhang Cheng who, relying on his connections with eunuchs, allowed his son to commit murder outside. The county magistrate of Henan, Li Ying, arrested Zhang Cheng's son and sentenced him to death, but before the case was concluded, an imperial amnesty was issued across the empire. Zhang Cheng arrogantly shouted, "Now who dares to kill my son!" Li Ying, burning with rage, declared that Zhang Cheng's son had committed a deliberate crime and was trying to escape punishment through the amnesty, so he deserved execution even more. Ignoring all dissuasion, Li Ying personally took Zhang Cheng's son to the execution ground and watched as the executioner cut off the criminal's head.
This was a huge uproar—Zhang Cheng ran to the palace, wailing and causing a scene. To vent his anger, the eunuchs fabricated numerous false charges against Li Ying, who was ultimately thrown into prison. Enraged commoners and officials could no longer sit idly by and organized massive protests, marking the beginning of a fierce struggle between the eunuchs and the ministers.
The eunuchs labeled the officials who opposed them as "Partisans," and Emperor Huan of Han issued an imperial decree to arrest these partisans nationwide, subjecting them to severe torture. In an instant, court officials either hid or fled, but many were still captured by the eunuchs. Chen Fan knew these partisans were loyal and virtuous men with considerable prestige among the state and the people; if they were arrested, public anger would surely intensify. He once again advised Emperor Huan not to heed the eunuchs' slanderous words so easily. The emperor, who had long found Chen Fan displeasing, took this opportunity to dismiss Chen Fan from his post and also removed Minister of Works Liu Mao from office. Chen Fan and Liu Mao had no choice but to return home in disappointment.
Emperor Huan's empress was the daughter of Dou Wu, who also disapproved of the emperor's actions; additionally, the upright integrity displayed by the partisans in prison deeply moved several eunuch judges, so Dou Wu requested that Emperor Huan show leniency toward the partisans, and those eunuchs ceased using severe torture on them, instead doing their best to treat them with care.
Li Ying deeply hated the eunuchs Zhao Jin and Hou Lan. To take revenge on them, he deliberately claimed during his interrogation that the eunuchs' confidants were his own. Alarmed that Li Ying's testimony might implicate them, Zhao Jin and his associates panicked and urged Emperor Huan to issue a general amnesty to release the partisans. The emperor followed their advice. In 167 AD, the Eastern Han Dynasty declared a general amnesty, freeing the partisans. Although they regained their freedom, Emperor Huan banned them from holding official positions, forcing them to live in obscurity in the countryside. This was the first Disaster of Partisan Prohibition.
In 168 AD, Emperor Ling of the Han Dynasty ascended the throne. That year, an unusual celestial phenomenon occurred, which was considered a very significant event, as people believed such astronomical anomalies foretold misfortune for the nation, and everyone unanimously directed their blame toward the eunuchs. High officials like Dou Wu gathered together, planning to seize this opportunity to eliminate the eunuchs in one fell swoop.
While they were secretly plotting, someone leaked the plan, and the eunuchs learned of Dou Wu and his associates' scheme ahead of time, launching their attack first. They forced Empress Dowager Dou and Emperor Ling of Han to hand over the imperial seals, then used the emperor's authority to arrest Dou Wu, Chen Fan, and other officials. The officials fought desperately, but in the chaos, Chen Fan was killed, Dou Wu was captured and later executed. All the partisans were imprisoned, Chen Fan's son was sent to Ganling by Zhu Zhen for hiding, and Dou Wu's grandson was concealed in Lingling by Hu Teng and Zhang Chang.
In 176 AD, Cao Luan, the Grand Administrator of Yongchang, pleaded for the partisans and was sentenced to death by Emperor Ling of Han, who then arrested the partisans' relatives, disciples, and many innocent clan members, throwing them all into prison.
In 184 AD, the Yellow Turban Rebellion erupted during the Eastern Han Dynasty. Emperor Ling of Han, facing both internal unrest and external threats, feared that the Yellow Turban army would attack Luoyang and also worried that remnants of the partisan faction might collude with the rebels. After much deliberation, he decided to release the relatives, friends, and disciples of the partisans. In 189 AD, Emperor Ling died, and Emperor Shao of Han ascended the throne. Dong Zhuo, the Inspector of Liang Province, who commanded a powerful army, forced Emperor Shao to abdicate and installed Emperor Xian of Han as the new ruler. Subsequently, Dong Zhuo issued an imperial decree to the entire nation, rehabilitating the wrongfully deceased partisans such as Chen Fan and Dou Wu, thereby officially ending the Partisan Prohibition.
During the era when eunuchs wielded absolute power and acted with reckless abandon, loyal ministers and virtuous scholars risked their own safety to resist the eunuch forces and strive to maintain national stability. Their actions inspired upright individuals in later generations, giving them confidence and strength to stand firm against tyranny, resist tenaciously, and remain unyielding even unto death.