Sima Qian was born in Xiayang (present-day Hancheng, Shaanxi Province), and his father, Sima Tan, once served as the Grand Historian. At a very young age, Sima Qian followed his father to Chang'an, where he studied under his father's guidance. He was extremely diligent in his reading, reviewing each book several times before setting it aside, and whenever he encountered passages he could not understand, he would study them tirelessly or seek advice from elders, refusing to give up until he had fully grasped their meaning.
By the age of twenty, simple reading could no longer satisfy Sima Qian's thirst for knowledge, so he decided to travel across the country to gather materials from various regions and further enrich his learning and experience. Sima Qian visited Kuaiji Commandery in Zhejiang, where he saw the legendary site where Yu the Great convened tribal leaders; he went to Changsha and stood by the Miluo River to commemorate the patriotic poet Qu Yuan; in Qufu, Shandong, he sawConfuciusHe visited the sites of ancient lectures and, through the accounts of the people in Pei County, learned many stories about the uprising of Liu Bang, the founder of the Han Dynasty. Sima Qian traveled extensively, diligently recording the notable figures and major events of each place. In doing so, his experiences broadened, and he gained knowledge that could not be found in books, laying a solid foundation for his future writings.
After returning to Chang'an, Sima Qian was appointed as a Gentleman of the Palace by Emperor Wu of Han, accompanying the emperor on several inspection tours. Later, he was dispatched by the emperor on missions to Yunnan, Guizhou, and Sichuan to observe local conditions, gathering a considerable amount of firsthand information along the way.
In 108 BC, after his father Sima Tan passed away, Sima Qian inherited the position of Grand Historian, which allowed him access to an ever-increasing number of books and knowledge. After years of accumulation and collection, Sima Qian decided to organize and compile the materials in his hands to write a historical record spanning from the era of the Yellow Emperor to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. Before this, he first needed to complete the formulation of the "Taichu Calendar."
In 104 BCE, Sima Qian, along with the astronomer Deng Ping and others, finally completed the "Taichu Calendar." Immediately afterward, he tirelessly began organizing materials and compiling a historical record.
Just at this moment, an event changed Sima Qian's situation.
In 99 BC, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty sent Li Guangli with 30,000 troops to fight the Xiongnu, but they were utterly defeated with nearly all soldiers killed, leaving only Li Guangli to escape alive. Li Ling, grandson of the famous general Li Guang, served as a cavalry commander and also joined this campaign. After the main Han forces were wiped out, instead of returning to Chang'an, Li Ling led 5,000 infantry to continue confronting the Xiongnu. The Chanyu, the Xiongnu leader, gathered 30,000 cavalry to surround Li Ling's troops. To the Xiongnu's surprise, despite their small numbers, Li Ling's cavalry, relying on exceptional archery skills and fierce combat ability, killed five to six thousand Xiongnu horsemen. The Chanyu, impressed, called in even more reinforcements. He initially thought this would crush Li Ling, but unexpectedly, Li Ling still held the upper hand, and if this continued, the Xiongnu would face a major defeat. However, one of Li Ling's officers betrayed him, revealing all internal details of the cavalry to the Chanyu and claiming that the Han court would send no reinforcements. Delighted, the Chanyu immediately ordered modifications to their bows and arrows, concentrating forces to attack Li Ling. Under the fierce Xiongnu assault, Li Ling and his cavalry were outnumbered. After a desperate fight, only about 400 soldiers managed to break out, while Li Ling himself was captured alive by the Xiongnu.
Not long after being captured, Li Ling surrendered to the Xiongnu. When this news reached Chang'an, Emperor Wu and his ministers were both shocked and enraged, with the ministers one after another condemning Li Ling for his cowardice and fear of death, asking how he could yield to the Xiongnu. As Emperor Wu listened to the crowd's denunciations, he then asked Sima Qian for his opinion on the matter.
Sima Qian pondered for a moment, then said to Emperor Wu of Han: "It is true that Li Ling lost the battle, but he led only five thousand troops deep into the heart of the Xiongnu territory, fought bravely against the enemy, and killed many Xiongnu soldiers. Although he has now been captured and surrendered, his achievements are evident to all. Li Ling is not a coward who fears death; the reason he chose to surrender rather than die for his country must have been justified. I believe his surrender was a ruse to deceive the enemy, and he must be waiting for an opportunity to strike back when the enemy least expects it."
After hearing these words, Emperor Wu felt that Sima Qian was outwardly praising Li Ling but actually criticizing Li Guangli for abandoning the remaining troops and fleeing back to Chang'an alone. It should be noted that Li Guangli was the brother of Emperor Wu's most favored consort. Emperor Wu believed that Sima Qian was deliberately siding with the guilty, opposing the court, and ordered him to be thrown into prison, with the case handed over to the Chief Justice for trial.
At that time, there was a Han Dynasty official named Du Zhou who particularly enjoyed using cruel torture on prisoners. Sima Qian unfortunately fell into his hands, and Du Zhou subjected him to every form of torture, hoping to force a confession, but his scheme failed. No matter how much physical pain or mental anguish he endured, Sima Qian never uttered a single word to exonerate himself, repeatedly asking in his heart: "Was it wrong for me to express my thoughts? As a minister of the state, could I not speak the truth in my heart?" When Emperor Wu of Han heard that Sima Qian refused to confess, he simply kept him imprisoned. After some time, news suddenly arrived that Li Ling was leading Xiongnu troops to attack the Han army. Although the truth of the report was uncertain, Emperor Wu believed it without doubt. In his fury, the emperor ordered the execution of Li Ling's entire family and sentenced Sima Qian to castration. Castration was an especially brutal punishment, causing indelible psychological terror, inviting ridicule from others, and bringing shame to one's ancestors. Sima Qian's heart turned to ashes; his body was crippled, his official position lost—how could he face anyone? He thought of death, but his unfinished ambitions made him hesitate.
King Wen of Zhou wrote the "Book of Changes" while imprisoned.Book of Changes》；ConfuciusWhen Confucius was stranded between Chen and Cai during his travels through various states, he later wrote the Spring and Autumn Annals; Qu Yuan composed the Li Sao while in exile; Zuo Qiuming wrote the Guoyu despite losing his sight; Sun Bin, after having his kneecaps removed, persisted in writing his Art of War. When a person endures hardship, they often unleash extraordinary abilities and accomplish great feats. Reflecting on these examples, Sima Qian became even more determined to complete his historical records, believing that even though his current circumstances were unfavorable, as long as he held faith in his heart, he would not fear any difficulties or obstacles.
In 96 BC, Emperor Wu of Han changed the reign title to Taishi and granted a general amnesty; by then, Sima Qian was already 50 years old. After his release from prison, Sima Qian was reappointed as Prefect of the Palace Secretariat, which caused many to resent him, accusing him of presuming on his seniority. Sima Qian paid no heed to their malicious words and devoted himself wholeheartedly to compiling historical records.
In 91 BC, Sima Qian finally completed the writing and revision of the Records of the Grand Historian.
The Records of the Grand Historian is divided into 130 chapters, including 12 basic annals, 10 tables, 8 treatises, 30 hereditary houses, and 40 biographies, totaling about 520,000 characters, serving as a vital source for later generations to understand history from prehistoric times to the reign of Emperor Wu of Han, and is hailed as a "true record and faithful history," also praised by Lu Xun as "the unmatched masterpiece of historical writing, the rhymeless Li Sao," and together with the later Comprehensive Mirror to Aid in Government, they are known as the "twin pillars of historiography."
The Records of the Grand Historian meticulously documents the life stories of several renowned ancient figures, as well as major historical events. Sima Qian's perspectives and understandings on many matters had already surpassed the prevailing thoughts of his time; for instance, when recounting the peasant rebel leaders Chen Sheng and Wu Guang, he highly praised their contributions and also expressed deep sympathy and lament for other oppressed lower-class people. The language used in the Records of the Grand Historian for character portrayals and plot descriptions is vivid and lively, creating lifelike characters. As a result, Sima Qian was posthumously honored as Shi Qian and Shi Sheng, and together with Sima Xiangru, they were collectively known as the "Two Simas of Western Han Literature."