ConfuciusHis name was Kong Qiu, a man from the State of Lu. His father, Shu Lianghe, was a military officer but held no significant status in Lu.ConfuciusAt the age of three, Confucius lost his father and thereafter lived alone with his mother, later moving with her to Qufu, where he grew up. As a young child, Confucius was intelligent and eager to learn, showing great interest in rituals and often imitating adults in ceremonies of worshiping heaven and ancestors. In his youth, he studied diligently, mastering the Six Arts (rites, music, archery, charioteering, writing, and mathematics). By the age of twenty, his knowledge was already vast, and because he revered the rites of the Zhou Dynasty, he regarded Ji Dan, the Duke of Zhou, who established the rites and music in the early Western Zhou, as a sage. His familiarity with ancient rituals earned him the praise of his contemporaries as "learned and devoted to rites."
At this time, Confucius aspired to enter officialdom and thus paid close attention to the affairs of the world, developing his own thoughts and insights on how to govern the state; however, he only held minor positions managing granaries and livestock. Yet he did not become discouraged—no matter how humble his office, he took it very seriously, and as a result, his achievements were outstanding.
Although his official career was not smooth, Confucius, due to his extensive knowledge and mastery of the Zhou rites, had already gained some fame by the age of thirty. Some people even came to him seeking to become his disciples. Confucius then decided to take on students and started his own school. When Meng Xizi, a high-ranking official of the State of Lu, was on his deathbed, he instructed his two sons to study the rites under Confucius. Later, Meng Xizi's sons recommended Confucius to Duke Zhao of Lu. The duke then sent Confucius to Luoyi, the capital of the Zhou Dynasty, to investigate the Zhou court's ritual and musical systems.
In the 20th year of Duke Zhao of Lu, Duke Jing of Qi visited Lu and summoned Confucius to discuss Duke Mu of Qin's hegemony, thus Confucius and Duke Jing of Qi met.
In the twenty-fifth year of Duke Zhao of Lu, when Confucius was thirty-five years old, internal turmoil broke out in the state of Lu, as powerful ministers such as the Jisun, Mengsun, and Shusun clans expelled Duke Zhao of Lu. Duke Zhao fled to the state of Qi, and Confucius also left Lu and went to Qi. Confucius met Duke Jing of Qi again and presented his political views to him. Duke Jing greatly appreciated him and wanted to give him an important position, even planning to grant him land, but the minister Yan Ying believed Confucius's ideas were impractical and opposed employing him, so Duke Jing followed Yan Ying's advice. After staying in Qi for two years, Confucius faced exclusion, and Qi ministers even plotted to harm him. Confucius sought help from Duke Jing of Qi, who said he was old and useless. Thus, Confucius fled back to Lu in haste. At that time, the power in Lu was still in the hands of the three hereditary ministerial families: the Jisun, Shusun, and Mengsun clans. They were descendants of the three sons of Duke Huan of Lu, hence called the "Three Huan," and to some extent, they were controlled by their own stewards. So in reality, the government of Lu was in the hands of some stewards of the Three Huan, a situation historically known as "stewards holding state power." This was fundamentally at odds with the rites that Confucius revered. Therefore, after returning to Lu, although Confucius had two opportunities to enter politics, he voluntarily gave them up and focused his main energy on the educational mission of transmitting knowledge, instructing students, and resolving doubts, with his disciples growing ever more numerous.
In the ninth year of Duke Ding of Lu, Confucius was appointed as the steward of Zhongdu. After serving for one year, due to his outstanding achievements, he was promoted to Minister of Public Works the following year, and soon after, he was further promoted to Minister of Justice (the official in charge of judicial affairs), bringing great order to the state of Lu. At that time, the state of Wu, with the assistance of Wu Zixu and Sun Wu, had decisively defeated the state of Chu, further threatening some of the major states in the Central Plains, among which the state of Qi bore the brunt of this threat. Since the time of Duke Huan of Qi's hegemony, Qi had been plagued by continuous internal strife and instability, having long lost its position as the dominant power. After Duke Jing of Qi ascended the throne, he appointed the capable Yan Ying to govern, and only then did Qi gradually stabilize and regain its strength. Once Qi had recovered its power, it planned to win over its neighboring state of Lu and the other Central Plains states to restore its hegemony. Thus, Duke Jing of Qi wrote a letter to Duke Ding of Lu, proposing a meeting at Jiagu, on the border between Qi and Lu. Duke Ding of Lu decided to have Confucius, who served as Minister of Justice, act as the "ritual assistant," or the aide for this meeting, to accompany him to the Jiagu summit. Confucius believed that Qi had repeatedly invaded Lu's borders and suggested that Lu prepare military forces for the meeting as a precaution. Duke Ding of Lu adopted Confucius's advice and, when heading to Jiagu, sent two generals leading a contingent of troops to accompany them. During the Jiagu summit, Lu gained the upper hand diplomatically. After this meeting, Duke Jing of Qi returned all three territories that Qi had seized from Lu.
In the twelfth year of Duke Ding of Lu, Confucius implemented a policy to demolish the illegally constructed fortresses built by the Three Huan families, historically known as "Dismantling the Three Capitals," aiming to weaken their power, but this action provoked the Three Huan families' resentment and exclusion of Confucius.
After the Jiagu Alliance, the state of Qi recognized Confucius's influence and grew deeply concerned, believing that his continued service in the state of Lu would harm Qi's interests. Duke Jing of Qi then adopted a two-pronged strategy: exploiting the conflicts between the Three Huan families and Confucius to further sow discord within Lu, while following the advice of his minister Li Chu by selecting eighty female musicians and sending them as a gift to Duke Ding of Lu. Duke Ding gladly accepted and, along with his powerful ministers, became obsessed with music and dance, indulging in pleasure and neglecting state affairs. Knowing Confucius would offer honest remonstrations, Duke Ding deliberately avoided him. Later, during the suburban sacrifice in Lu, it was customary to distribute the sacrificial meat to the ministers afterward, but Duke Ding did not give any to Confucius, signaling that they no longer wished to employ him. Seeing his political ideals go unrealized, Confucius was deeply disappointed and, with no other choice, led his disciples to leave Lu in search of opportunities elsewhere.
That year, Confucius was 55, beginning his 14-year journey through various states.
Confucius and his disciples first arrived in the state of Wei, where Duke Ling of Wei greatly respected Confucius and provided him with a salary equivalent to that of his home state of Lu, but did not appoint him to any official position, only inviting him to participate in discussions on state affairs. Confucius stayed in Wei for several months, but someone slandered him to Duke Ling, causing the duke to become suspicious and send people to monitor Confucius. Fearing he might be unjustly punished, Confucius left Wei with his disciples, intending to go to the state of Chen. On the way, passing through Kuang City, he was mistakenly besieged for five days. After escaping Kuang, Confucius arrived at Pu, where a rebellion led by the Wei nobleman Gongshu was underway, and he was again surrounded, eventually forced to return to Wei. Later, Duke Ling's wife, Nanzi, summoned Confucius, and when the duke rode out in the same carriage as Nanzi, he placed Confucius's carriage behind that of the eunuchs. Feeling humiliated, Confucius left Wei.
Confucius and his disciples traveled to the State of Cao, then to the State of Song, where they were persecuted by Sima Huan Tui but managed to escape, and subsequently arrived at the State of Zheng. On the way to Zheng, Confucius became separated from his disciples and stood dazed by the east gate. His disciple Zigong asked a local if he had seen Confucius, and the local replied that there was an old man looking like a lost dog standing dazed by the east gate.
Confucius traveled from the State of Zheng to the State of Chen, but due to the power struggle between Jin and Chu threatening Chen, he left Chen. Passing through Pu, he was blocked again. The people of Pu forced Confucius to swear an oath not to go to Wei before they would let him go. Confucius made the oath with them, but he was adept at adapting—such an oath, made under duress, was not binding—so he still went to Wei. Upon hearing this, Duke Ling of Wei joyfully came out of the city in person to welcome Confucius and his disciples. Nevertheless, Duke Ling ultimately did not employ Confucius, and Confucius had to leave Wei once more.
Confucius left the State of Wei and traveled westward, where Bi Xi, the magistrate of Zhongmou in the State of Jin, had rebelled and wanted Confucius to serve as an official. Confucius intended to go, but his disciple Zi Lu strongly opposed it, arguing that he should not work for a rebel. Confucius felt helpless and ultimately did not go.
Confucius arrived in the state of Cai and lived there for three years. When Wu attacked Chen, Chu sent troops to aid Chen. Hearing that Confucius was between Chen and Cai, King Zhao of Chu sent an invitation for him. The high officials of Chen and Cai, fearing that Confucius's service to Chu would endanger their own states, dispatched soldiers to surround him in a sparsely populated area along the way. After several days, they ran out of food, yet Confucius remained steadfast in his principles, continuing to teach and play music. When the food shortage persisted for days, Zigong managed to find some Chu people, and King Zhao of Chu sent troops to welcome Confucius, saving him and his disciples from starvation.
During his time in the state of Chu, King Zhao of Chu intended to grant Confucius a fief of seven hundred li. However, Confucius had once said, "If someone were to employ me, would I not revive the ways of the Eastern Zhou?" This led the Chu prime minister, Zixi, to fear that Confucius might, like King Wen of Zhou, use such a base to claim kingship over all under heaven, so he strongly advised against it. King Zhao of Chu also grew wary of Confucius, and in the end, he did not give him an important position.
At the age of 63, Confucius returned to the State of Wei from the State of Chu. By then, Duke Ling of Wei had passed away and Duke Chu of Wei had succeeded to the throne. Many of Confucius's disciples held official positions in Wei, and Duke Chu also wanted to employ Confucius. However, Confucius firmly advocated for "rectifying names," which would require Duke Chu to relinquish his throne to his father. Naturally, Duke Chu was unwilling to do so, and thus Confucius was not given a position.
In the state of Lu, Confucius's disciples repeatedly achieved merit while serving as officials. Ji Kangzi, recognizing that Confucius's disciples were indeed talented individuals, sent someone to the state of Wei to invite Ran You back. Ran You led troops into battle against the state of Qi, returned victorious, and when Ji Kangzi asked him where he had learned military strategy, Ran You replied that he had studied with Confucius. This convinced Ji Kangzi to make up his mind and recall Confucius.
Confucius was in the State of Wei, where Kong Wenzi of Wei once sought his advice on military tactics, but Confucius refused to answer. Shortly after, Ji Kangzi sent generous gifts to welcome Confucius back, so Confucius returned to the State of Lu.
Confucius led his disciples on a journey through various states for over a decade, traveling through Wei, Cao, Song, Zheng, Chen, Cai, and Chu, enduring hardships, repeated setbacks, and even near-death experiences; despite this, he steadfastly held onto his ideals, maintained an optimistic and upward-looking attitude, and persisted in doing what he knew was impossible.
When Confucius returned to the State of Lu, he was already sixty-eight years old, still respected but not employed. So he focused his energy on compiling ancient cultural classics and education.Book of Songs"such as the Book of Documents and the Spring and Autumn Annals were compiled by Confucius in his later years."
In 479 BCE, the sixteenth year of Duke Ai of Lu's reign, Confucius died of illness. His teachings were further developed and spread by his disciples, thus forming the Confucian school of thought. Confucius is recognized as the founder of Confucianism and is widely regarded by later generations as a great thinker and educator.