During the Warring States period, a great master emerged among the Hundred Schools of Thought in pre-Qin China. As a representative figure of Confucianism, he not only inherited and developed Confucian thought but also proposed the governance principle of "elevating ritual and emphasizing law" and the learning concept that "learning should never cease." He was Xunzi, the renowned Chinese thinker and educator.
Xunzi, whose personal name was Kuang and courtesy name was Qing, also known as Xun Qing, was born around 313 BCE in the state of Zhao. He lived during the Warring States period, when the seven powerful states of Qi, Chu, Yan, Zhao, Qin, Han, and Wei were vying for supremacy. At that time, the state of Qi was relatively strong. The King of Qi ordered the establishment of the Jixia Academy in the capital Linzi, inviting renowned scholars from various states to lecture there, in order to win over intellectuals and expand Qi's influence. Among these intellectuals were famous figures such as Mencius and Zou Yan. It was here that Xunzi became familiar with the ideas of various schools of thought. Later, he criticized the ideas of all these schools except for Confucius, whom he revered. He believed that Confucius's ideas represented the ideal way to govern a state and considered himself Confucius's successor. In reality, on the basis of Confucius's thought, he also critically absorbed the theories of the Hundred Schools of Thought, thereby forming his own unique views on nature and society.
Xunzi's philosophy formed a distinct school of thought; rather than continuing Confucius and Mencius's focus on "benevolence and righteousness," he proposed behavioral norms centered on "ritual" and "law."
In terms of "ritual propriety," contrary to Mencius's theory of innate human goodness, he believed that human nature is inherently evil, thus proposing the theory of innate human evil. Xunzi argued that from birth, humans possess various desires—for example, when hungry, they want to eat; when tired, they want to rest—all of which are part of human nature. Additionally, all people seek what benefits them and dislike what harms them. To obtain what benefits them, people engage in conflict, so he concluded that human nature is evil from birth. Although human nature is evil, people can achieve goodness through their environment and learning. To become good, people must learn ritual propriety. Human desires are limitless, but ritual propriety can impose certain restrictions on these desires. By learning ritual and righteousness, people can cover up their evil nature. When human nature and ritual propriety are properly integrated, such a person can become a sage.
In terms of "law," Xunzi leaned toward establishing specific behavioral regulations for people. Compared with Confucius's emphasis on "self-restraint" and "self-cultivation" centered on "benevolence," and Mencius's focus on "compassion" and "sense of right and wrong," Xunzi placed greater weight on "law"—that is, achieving the ideal of "benevolent governance" through the punitive measures of a political and legal system. While he stressed "ritual," he also believed that certain political and legal mechanisms should be combined with ritual. However, in governing the state, Xunzi still regarded "ritual" as the most important element.
After Xunzi's philosophy of "upholding rites and emphasizing law" matured, he began traveling to various states to promote his political ideas. Initially, he planned to present his views to the King of Qi, but someone slandered him in the king's ear, forcing Xunzi to leave Qi. He then went to the state of Chu, where the King of Chu appointed him as the Magistrate of Lanling. Again, someone spoke ill of him before the Chu king, and Xunzi had to leave Chu. Soon after, the King of Zhao appointed him as a Senior Minister. At that time, someone advised Lord Chunshen to invite Xunzi back to Chu, so Lord Chunshen brought him back and reappointed him as the Magistrate of Lanling. In 238 BCE, Lord Chunshen was killed, and Xunzi resigned from office, spending his later years primarily on teaching and writing.
At that time, while he was at the Jixia Academy in the State of Qi, he had specifically traveled to the State of Qin to conduct an investigation. He believed that Qin had the greatest potential to unify the entire realm in the future, and he hoped that the ruler of Qin would accomplish the great task of unifying the world. At the same time, he also proposed specific measures. However, Xunzi's ideas did not align with the political climate of Qin at the time, so he did not gain the favor of the King of Qin. Decades later, his student Li Si, drawing on his teachings, proposed the concepts of "rule by law" and "the way of the king," which won the appreciation of the King of Qin, and Li Si was appointed as Prime Minister.
Xunzi placed great importance on learning, believing it to be extremely vital for a person, which he specifically discussed in his work "Encouraging Learning," where he put forward the view that "learning should never cease," teaching people the principle that knowledge is infinite, and also proposed the dedicated learning attitude that "if you carve persistently, even metal and stone can be engraved; if you give up halfway, even rotten wood cannot be broken," while also telling people that "by accumulating earth to form a mountain, wind and rain arise from it; by accumulating water to form a deep pool, dragons emerge from it; by accumulating good deeds to form virtue, spiritual enlightenment is achieved and a sage's mind is prepared," emphasizing the need for continuous self-cultivation; additionally, he considered the teacher to be very important in teaching, thus requiring students to ensure that teachers set an example, and through his own teaching practice, he summarized many educational experiences and learning methods, proposed many brilliant teaching ideas, and made significant contributions to education, cultivating many talented students, among whom the famous ones include Li Si and Han Fei.
Xunzi's essays feature clear arguments, well-organized structures, and thorough reasoning, while his language is rich and varied, skillfully drawing on extensive references. In his writings, he employs metaphors, parallel constructions, and antithetical couplets, a style that synthesizes the strengths of various schools and has been praised as the "culmination of the Hundred Schools of Thought." From a literary perspective, Xunzi was also an outstanding writer.
Xunzi's thoughts influenced many, and his works endure, truly a great thinker, writer, and educator.