The state of Chu, located south of the Han River, alternately submitted to and rebelled against the Zhou royal court since its founding, becoming a major threat to the Central Plains feudal lords. Later, Chu's ruler Xiong Tong usurped the title of king, declaring himself King Wu of Chu. Through the governance of several generations—King Wu, King Wen, and King Cheng—Chu expanded its territory by a thousand li, grew increasingly powerful, and constantly coveted the Central Plains. In response, the Central Plains lords championed the slogan "Honor the King, Expel the Barbarians," primarily targeting Chu. When Duke Huan of Qi dominated as hegemon, Chu was confined to Zhaoling; later, when Duke Wen of Jin became hegemon, he defeated Chu decisively at Chengpu, and Chu remained unable to advance northward.
In 628 BCE, the ambitious Crown Prince Shangchen murdered King Cheng to seize the throne, becoming King Mu of Chu. King Mu harbored ambitions to dominate the Central Plains but also recognized that the state of Jin's strength was not to be underestimated, so he bided his time and actively implemented policies to restore and strengthen the state, expanding Chu's power. However, at this time, Zhao Dun of Jin was in power, issuing all military and political orders single-handedly. Zhao Dun was extremely tough both domestically and externally, and although Chu, under King Mu's painstaking efforts, could act with impunity in the Jianghuai and Hanyang regions, it was still unable to advance into the Central Plains due to Zhao Dun's strong suppression.
In 613 BCE, King Mu of Chu died of a sudden illness, harboring the regret of never having achieved hegemony over the Central Plains. His young eldest son, Xiong Lü, ascended the throne—this was King Zhuang of Chu, who would later astonish the world with a single cry. When King Zhuang took power, the Ruo'ao clan, a powerful noble family within Chu, was strong and ambitious, poised to rebel at any moment. With the new king's rule just established, the domestic political situation was highly unstable. Meanwhile, their longtime rival, the state of Jin, saw Chu's weaknesses and watched them with predatory intent. This precarious situation of internal and external threats placed the newly enthroned King Zhuang under an extremely severe test.
In the first year of King Zhuang of Chu's reign, Zhao Dun, the chief minister of Jin, marched south to seize the state of Zheng, and Duke Mu of Zheng submitted to Jin. Jin then allied with the rulers of Song, Lu, Chen, Wei, Zheng, Cao, and Xu at Xincheng. Chen and Song, originally vassals of Chu, switched allegiance to Jin after this alliance, turning their sights against Chu.
The following year, Jin used Cai's absence from the Xincheng alliance as a pretext to launch a military campaign against Cai, a neighboring state of Chu. Cai put up a determined resistance while simultaneously sending envoys to Chu for reinforcements, but King Zhuang of Chu did not dispatch troops to help. Under Jin's fierce assault, Cai's capital fell, and to avoid complete annihilation, the ruler of Cai was forced to sign a humiliating treaty with Jin at the city gates. This event filled the Cai ruler with such grief and indignation that he passed away the following year.
In the autumn of the third year, a great famine struck the state of Chu. Surrounding tribes rose up in rebellion one after another: first, the Shanjung tribe east of Ba took the opportunity to raid Chu's southwestern border, and the Chu army launched a counterattack; then, the Yi and Yue tribes in the east also stirred up trouble, disrupting the southeastern border, seizing Yangqiu, and directly threatening Zizhi. Yong, a state that had long been submissive to Chu, incited various barbarian tribes such as Jun and Baipu to rebel, preparing to attack the capital Ying.
For three years, urgent reports of crisis poured in from all regions, flying like snowflakes into the capital of Ying. The situation at home and abroad deteriorated step by step, yet the Chu king's palace remained a scene of music, dance, and revelry. The young and weak King Zhuang of Chu, having ascended the throne for three years, issued no decrees, attended to no state affairs, and spent his days indulging in wine and pleasure in the inner palace. He even hung a large sign at the palace gate, which read: "Anyone who dares to offer remonstrance shall be put to death without pardon!"
On one side, the State of Jin, under the leadership of Zhao Dun, was running rampant across the Central Plains, reaching its zenith; on the other side, King Zhuang of Chu was hiding deep in his palace, indulging in wine and pleasure, neglecting state affairs. Chu was on the verge of collapse, the situation extremely tense, and the ministers who relied on the king were burning with anxiety. Eventually, Grand Master Wu Ju could no longer bear it and went to see the king. King Zhuang, with women on both sides, his face flushed with drink, was watching a dance performance. Seeing Wu Ju, he asked drunkenly, "Grand Master, have you come for wine or to watch the dance?" Wu Ju replied that he had heard a riddle that day but couldn't solve it, so he came specially to seek the king's advice. King Zhuang, intrigued by the mention of a riddle, eagerly asked Wu Ju to tell it. Wu Ju said meaningfully, "There is a great five-colored bird that has flown to the mountains of Chu, but for three years it has neither raised its head to sing nor spread its wings to fly. What kind of bird do you think it is?" King Zhuang, realizing this was a veiled criticism of himself, laughed and said, "I know what bird it is. Do not underestimate it. If it does not fly for three years, when it does, it will soar straight into the clouds; if it does not sing for three years, when it does, it will startle the world." Hearing this, Wu Ju felt relieved and happily returned.
However, after several more months, King Zhuang still spent his days drinking, hunting, and indulging in pleasure. The minister Su Cong decided to risk death to offer advice. Entering the palace, he burst into loud weeping as soon as he saw the king. King Zhuang asked in confusion, "What matter has caused you such sorrow?" Su Cong replied, "I am saddened by my own impending death, but what grieves me even more is that the state of Chu is also about to perish!" King Zhuang asked in surprise, "How do you know you will die, and what does that have to do with Chu's destruction?" Su Cong said, "I have come to urge you to attend to state affairs, and you will surely have me killed. If loyal ministers are executed for offering honest advice, and you continue to spend your days hunting and feasting, no one will dare to speak out, and Chu will soon be on the brink of ruin!" The king grew furious and said, "Since you know you will die, why come to seek death?" Su Cong replied, "If you kill me, I will be praised for my loyalty and forthrightness, while you will bring ruin to the state and become a king who lost his kingdom."
King Zhuang of Chu was deeply moved and immediately ordered the disbandment of the female musicians, indicating that he would heed Su Cong's remonstrance. From then on, King Zhuang truly distanced himself from wine and women and devoted himself diligently to state affairs. Over the past three years, he had also been secretly observing who were loyal ministers and who were treacherous, and had long understood them clearly. After taking power, he executed several hundred people and promoted several hundred others, entrusting important positions to Wu Ju, Su Cong, and others, which greatly pleased the people of Chu.
As soon as King Zhuang of Chu took personal control of the government, his top priority was to suppress the rebellion of the Yong State. Therefore, King Zhuang of Chu allied with the Qin and Ba states and personally led his army in a fierce attack on Yong. Overawed by Chu's powerful forces, the various tribes submitted, making covenants with King Zhuang to withdraw their troops. Taking advantage of this victory, King Zhuang of Chu completely destroyed the Yong State, achieving his first major triumph since assuming power. This campaign to pacify Yong demonstrated King Zhuang's outstanding talent, secured Chu's rear, and strengthened ties with Ba and Qin. With his rule now stabilized, King Zhuang planned to follow his father's ambition and march north to contend for hegemony over the Central Plains.
The most formidable opponent of the Chu state in its struggle for hegemony over the Central Plains was the Jin state, which restrained Qin to the west and controlled Qi to the east; although Qin and Qi were powerful, they were still no match for Jin. However, by this time in Jin, Duke Ling of Jin had gradually grown up and begun to personally govern. Although real power still remained in the hands of Zhao Dun, the increasingly prominent conflict between Duke Ling and Zhao Dun constrained Zhao Dun's ability to pursue external hegemony, which gave King Zhuang of Chu an opportunity to exploit the situation.
As the State of Chu stabilized and grew stronger, some states in the Central Plains shifted their allegiance, reconsidering their relationship with Chu. In 608 BCE, the State of Zheng, which had previously relied on the State of Jin, voluntarily formed an alliance with Chu. Around this time, the ruler of Chen died, and King Zhuang of Chu did not send an envoy to offer condolences, angering the new ruler, Duke Ling of Chen, who then allied with Jin. King Zhuang of Chu immediately led a large army to attack Chen, followed by an attack on Song. In response, the State of Jin led a coalition of Song, Chen, Wei, and Cao to attack Zheng in order to relieve Chen and Song.
In the spring of 607 BCE, the state of Chu, seeking to weaken the state of Jin, ordered the state of Zheng to attack the state of Song, resulting in a major defeat for the Song army. Later that same year, Zhao Dun of Jin allied with the states of Wei and Chen to attack Zheng, but King Zhuang of Chu immediately ordered Zi Yue to lead troops to rescue Zheng, causing Zhao Dun to quietly withdraw his forces, demonstrating that Chu's military power was on the rise.
The state of Jin was at a disadvantage in its external struggles for hegemony, and internal turmoil erupted when Duke Ling of Jin was killed by Zhao Chuan. Duke Cheng of Jin then ascended the throne and led an army to attack the state of Zheng, forcing Zheng to sue for peace and form an alliance. Soon after, King Zhuang of Chu personally led a large army northward to attack the Luhun Rong tribes, and the Chu forces directly stationed troops near Luoyi, the capital of the Zhou king, demonstrating their power to the Zhou royal court. The Zhou king panicked and quickly sent the grand master Wangsun Man to offer condolences to the Chu army. King Zhuang of Chu received Wangsun Man and deliberately asked, "It is said that Yu the Great once cast the Nine Tripods; I wonder about their size and weight?" The Nine Tripods symbolized the Nine Provinces and were the sacred vessels representing the authority of the Son of Heaven. By inquiring about the Nine Tripods, King Zhuang of Chu openly revealed his disloyal intentions. Seeing the overwhelming arrogance of the Chu army, Wangsun Man dared not rebuke him and replied tactfully that a state's strength relied on virtue, not the weight of the tripods, so there was no need to ask. King Zhuang of Chu, realizing the time was not yet ripe to replace the Zhou royal house, withdrew his troops and returned to Chu. This incident demonstrated that Chu's power had reached an unprecedented level of strength.
When King Zhuang of Chu returned triumphantly with his army, he learned that the Ruo'ao clan had erupted in internal conflict. Prime Minister Zi Yue gained the upper hand, occupied the capital Ying, and stationed troops at Zhengye, waiting only for the king's army to return in order to seize the throne. Zi Yue refused peace negotiations, so King Zhuang led his forces to confront him at Gaohu in a decisive battle. At the critical moment, King Zhuang personally beat the war drum and ordered a counterattack; Zi Yue was struck dead by an arrow. The rebel forces, having lost their leader, fell into chaos and instantly scattered. King Zhuang seized the opportunity to round up the entire rebel army. After suppressing this rebellion, the Ruo'ao clan's power was completely uprooted, and King Zhuang concentrated all military and political authority into his own hands.
Later, in order to strengthen the state of Chu, King Zhuang appointed the virtuous hermit Sunshu Ao as his prime minister. Sunshu Ao reclaimed wasteland, built irrigation projects, and encouraged production, making Chu's national power even more formidable.
In 598 BCE, the State of Zheng formed an alliance with the State of Chu at Chenling, but Zheng wavered in its loyalty and soon established friendly relations with the State of Jin. This fence-sitting behavior greatly angered Chu. The following spring, King Zhuang of Chu dispatched a large army to besiege Zheng's capital. Zheng sought help from Jin, but Jin's reinforcements were slow to arrive. After holding out for three months, Zheng was finally breached by Chu. Duke Xiang of Zheng surrendered, exchanged hostages with Chu, and signed a covenant pledging his full allegiance to Chu.
After the surrender of the State of Zheng, the State of Jin finally dispatched reinforcements, but by the time they reached the banks of the Yellow River, news arrived that Zheng had already surrendered to the State of Chu. The Jin commanders, Xun Linfu and Shi Hui, among others, intended to withdraw back to Jin. Xun Linfu, newly appointed and lacking prestige in the army, found that the deputy commander of the central army, Xian Hu, and others disregarded the commander's advice and led their troops across the Yellow River without authorization. Left with no choice, Xun Linfu hastily led the main Jin army across the river.
At that time, King Zhuang of Chu stationed his army at Bi, and although he knew the Jin army had already crossed the Yellow River, he still attempted to seek peace. After crossing the river, the Jin army camped in the Ao and Hao regions, where internal opinions on whether to fight or negotiate remained deadlocked. Later, Xun Linfu sent envoys to negotiate a truce with Chu, but those dispatched were all pro-war generals who disobeyed the commander's orders and instead initiated a challenge.
The Jin army was actually unprepared for battle, and as soon as the two sides clashed, the Chu forces swarmed in, throwing Xun Linfu into a panic. He quickly ordered a retreat, beating drums and announcing that anyone who crossed the Yellow River first would be rewarded. The Jin army fell into chaos, with soldiers rushing toward the ferry boats, scrambling to cross. Those who hadn't boarded clung tightly to the gunwales, while those already on the boats, trying to shake them off, chopped at their hands with swords, causing many to fall into the water. The upper army led by Shi Hui was more cautious, setting up an ambush that allowed them to retreat with their entire force intact and minimal losses. By dusk, the remnants of the Jin army were utterly routed. King Zhuang of Chu, unwilling to annihilate the Jin forces completely, did not press the attack. This was the second major battle between Jin and Chu after the Battle of Chengpu—the Battle of Bi.
This campaign fully demonstrated the political stability of the Chu state at the time, with the entire nation united in purpose and possessing great national strength. For a time, the Jin state dared not contend with Chu again, and from then on, Chu's prestige soared, finally fulfilling its long-cherished wish to dominate the Central Plains.
King Zhuang's hegemony over the Central Plains not only spread Chu's fame far and wide but also integrated Chu into Central Plains culture, playing a role in the unification of Huaxia and the formation of a national spirit, with far-reaching influence and high praise from later generations.