The Zhao clan originated from the Ying surname during the mid-Western Zhou dynasty, with their ancestor being Zao Fu. Historical records state that Zao Fu helped King Mu of Zhou resist the Western Rong and suppress the rebellion of Xu, and as a reward, King Mu granted him the city of Zhao, after which Zao Fu's clan adopted Zhao as their surname. Zao Fu's descendants served as ministers in the Zhou royal court, and by the time of King You of Zhou, the lineage passed to Shu Dai. Seeing King You's incompetence, Shu Dai foresaw that the Zhou royal house was beyond saving, so he moved his entire family to the state of Jin to seek refuge with Marquis Wen of Jin, thus establishing this branch of the Zhao clan in Jin.
From the time of Marquis Wen of Jin to Duke Wu of Jin, spanning nearly a century, the Zhao clan remained obscure and unremarkable. By the reign of Duke Xian of Jin, Zhao Su led troops to resist the Western Rong, fighting bravely and greatly expanding the duke's territory. He was granted the fief of Geng and ranked as a grand master, allowing the Zhao clan to reemerge. However, the Zhao family's true rise to prominence began with Zhao Sui's grandson, Zhao Cui.
In the later years of Duke Xian of Jin, Li Ji caused chaos in the state of Jin, forcing Crown Prince Shensheng to commit suicide and driving Prince Chong'er and Yiwu into exile. At that time, the young Zhao Cui followed Prince Chong'er and spent his entire life by his side, risking life and limb for him.
Chong'er and his group, while in exile, arrived for refuge in the state of Di, his mother's homeland. When Di attacked the Rong tribe, they captured the beautiful sisters Ji Wei and Shu Wei and presented them to Chong'er. Chong'er gave Shu Wei as a wife to his advisor Zhao Cui, who was traveling with him. Shu Wei bore Zhao Cui a son, who would become the powerful minister Zhao Dun, a figure whose influence shook the world and shaped the fate of the state of Jin.
Chong'er lived in the Di state for twelve years, and Zhao Dun's childhood was also spent under the influence of his learned father Zhao Cui and his virtuous uncle Chong'er; in such an environment, Zhao Dun not only became widely knowledgeable and strong in memory but also gentle and courteous. Due to the persecution of Duke Hui of Jin, Chong'er and Zhao Cui had no choice but to leave their families behind in the Di state and continue their exile, and from then on, the young Zhao Dun was separated from his father.
Later, with the help of Duke Mu of Qin, Chong'er finally returned to the state of Jin, killed Duke Huai of Jin, and succeeded to the throne as Duke Wen of Jin. After Duke Wen restored his rule, he appointed Zhao Cui as a high official and married his daughter Meng Ji to Zhao Cui. She bore three sons: Zhao Tong, Zhao Kuo, and Zhao Yingqi. Meng Ji's original surname was Ji, and after marrying into the Zhao family, she was historically known as Zhao Ji. Zhao Ji was virtuous and virtuous; upon learning that Zhao Cui had descendants in the Di state, she brought Zhao Dun and his mother back to Jin. Putting aside personal interests, she established Shu Wei as the primary wife and willingly became a concubine herself. Later, because Zhao Dun was talented and the eldest legitimate son, Zhao Ji strongly advocated for him to inherit the Zhao clan lineage.
Zhao Shuai served under both Duke Wen and Duke Xiang of Jin, earning their full trust and high regard. After Zhao Shuai's death, his young son Zhao Dun inherited his father's position as a high-ranking minister and later also took on the role of commander of the central army, thus concentrating both military and political power in his own hands, becoming the chief minister of Jin, second only to Duke Xiang of Jin himself.
After Zhao Dun took power, he established a series of laws and regulations, restored the hierarchy of nobility and commoners, and reinstated previously abolished official positions; he clarified criminal statutes, streamlined legal proceedings, and pursued fugitive criminals; he set up contracts, cleared up accumulated malpractices in governance, and appointed talented but previously overlooked officials. This governance plan was approved by Duke Xiang, and over the following more than 20 years of Zhao Dun's administration, the plan was continuously revised.
Shortly after Zhao Dun assumed the position of Chief Minister, Duke Xiang of Jin passed away from illness. Crown Prince Yigao succeeded the throne, becoming Duke Ling of Jin. Since Duke Ling was young and inexperienced, Zhao Dun became the ruling minister, acting as regent for the state of Jin. This barely stabilized the chaotic situation that had followed Duke Xiang's death, and Zhao Dun began his 20-year-long monopoly of power over Jin.
In 621 BCE, at Hu in the state of Zheng, Zhao Dun, acting as the full representative of Duke Ling of Jin, participated in an alliance conference with the states of Qi, Song, Lu, Wei, Chen, Zheng, Cao, and Xu. During the alliance, Zhao Dun introduced the new ruler of Jin, exercising the authority that only a hegemon could possess. For the first time, Zhao Dun appeared before the feudal lords as a high-ranking minister, setting a precedent where a subject presided over an alliance of lords. From then on, ministers grew powerful while lords became insignificant, evolving into a trend of the Spring and Autumn period.
During the alliance at Hudi, Duke Wen of Lu arrived late for the meeting. The following year, Zhao Dun ordered an attack on Lu to retaliate for Duke Wen's disrespect toward Jin. Zhao Dun governed with a firm hand, and Duke Wen, fearing Jin's power, quickly sent his minister Dongmen Xiangzhong with generous gifts to apologize and seek peace. Dongmen Xiangzhong formed an alliance with Zhao Dun at Hengyong, pledging Lu's continued allegiance to Jin, and only then did Zhao Dun withdraw his troops.
At this time, the State of Jin was already the hegemon. To maintain and enhance the dominance established during the reigns of Duke Wen and Duke Xiang of Jin, Zhao Dun adopted the advice of General Xi Que, advocating for winning over the feudal lords through virtue. He returned the lands previously seized from those states that had already submitted to Jin, thereby demonstrating the magnanimity of a great power. Acting in the name of Duke Ling of Jin, Zhao Dun restored the territories that had been taken from the states of Wei and Zheng. This act deeply moved the rulers of Wei and Zheng, earning Zhao Dun a reputation as a virtuous minister among the feudal lords and further solidifying Jin's hegemonic position.
Zhao Dun gained fame both at home and abroad, but among the old ministers within the state, a hidden current of opposition against him was brewing. In 618 BC, these ministers, unwilling to remain obscure, conspired together and sent an assassin to kill Zhao Dun's trusted ally, Xian Ke, who held the powerful position of commander of the central army. Realizing the gravity of the situation, Zhao Dun ordered a thorough investigation. As a result, the implicated ministers were arrested one by one and executed without mercy by Zhao Dun. Through this incident, Zhao Dun completely eliminated his political enemies and, according to his own will, restructured the core of Jin's government—the Three Armies and Six Ministers—bringing all his loyal followers into the ranks of the Six Ministers.
The state of Jin stood out prominently in the Central Plains, greatly displeasing the state of Chu, which had long sought to expand into that region. The newly enthroned King Mu of Chu, determined to achieve hegemony, meticulously planned a northern expedition to battle Jin’s forces and avenge their defeat at the Battle of Chengpu years earlier. However, during the reign of Duke Xiang of Jin, the state was prosperous and its people strong, leaving Chu feeling powerless. After Duke Xiang’s death, turmoil erupted in Jin, but eventually Zhao Dun took control and stabilized the situation. At this time, Zhao Dun was preoccupied with suppressing internal unrest and reorganizing the political core. Seizing this opportunity, King Mu of Chu attacked Zheng, a vassal state of Jin. While Duke Mu of Zheng actively resisted, he urgently sent envoys to Jin for help, but Zhao Dun was too busy to attend to Zheng’s plight. Zheng was defeated and formed an alliance with Chu. Only then did Jin lead a coalition of forces from Song, Wei, and Xu to aid Zheng, forcing Duke Mu of Zheng to reluctantly ally with Zhao Dun again. It was only after Chu’s army withdrew that Zhao Dun dispatched troops to rescue Zheng, leading King Mu of Chu to realize Zhao Dun’s current weakness. That summer, Chu further challenged Jin by attacking its ally, the state of Chen. Unable to rely on Jin for support, Chen had no choice but to endure Chu’s aggression.
Then, King Mu of Chu sent envoys to the states of Lu and Qin, requesting them to jointly encircle the state of Jin. Qin agreed to cooperate with Chu. The following year, King Mu of Chu formally formed an alliance with the states of Zheng and Chen, agreeing that the three states would oppose Jin together. At this point, Jin's hegemony in the south collapsed, and Zhao Dun found himself in a difficult position. Soon after, Chu launched a military campaign against the state of Song, and Song also defected to Chu. However, King Mu of Chu was preoccupied with continuous military campaigns, allowing his domestic ministers to expand their power, which eventually led to internal turmoil. This gave Zhao Dun a chance to catch his breath. After several years of effort, Zhao Dun finally stabilized the situation in Jin and decided to once again raise the banner of "honoring the king and repelling the barbarians," calling on the feudal lords to oppose Chu and reassert Jin's dominance in the struggle for hegemony.
At this time, King Mu of Chu passed away, and the young King Zhuang ascended the throne. Faced with the growing power of influential nobles at court, King Zhuang pretended to indulge in wine and women, refraining from governing for three years as a strategy to bide his time. The moment for the Jin forces to counterattack had also arrived, with their army fully prepared to march. At this point, King Zhuang of Chu had just taken power, his position unstable and internal turmoil looming, while in Jin, Zhao Dun was in charge, issuing unified decrees, causing the feudal lords to weigh the pros and cons and once again shift their allegiance to Jin.
In 613 BCE, Zhao Dun presided over an alliance, where the rulers of six states—Song, Chen, Wei, Zheng, Xu, and Cao—met with the state of Jin at Xincheng in Song territory, causing the efforts of King Mu of Chu in his later years to be completely undone. The following year, Zhao Dun sent troops to attack the state of Cai, which had persistently allied with Chu; Cai was defeated and forced to sign a "humiliating treaty under the city walls." In 610 BCE, Zhao Dun again convened the feudal lords for a meeting at Hu, and this time all the states rallied behind Jin, allowing Jin to reclaim its position as the hegemon of the Central Plains and suppress Chu's momentum.
During this period, Duke Ling of Jin gradually grew up, acting recklessly and refusing to heed advice. He resented Zhao Dun's monopoly on power, and their conflict deepened day by day, even to the point where he sent an assassin to kill Zhao Dun. Zhao Dun had no choice but to leave the state of Jin. Not long after, Zhao Dun's cousin Zhao Chuan killed Duke Ling and invited Zhao Dun to return and take charge of state affairs. After returning, Zhao Dun ordered Zhao Chuan to go to Luoyi to welcome Prince Heitun to succeed the throne, who became Duke Cheng of Jin. Fearing he might meet the same fate as Duke Ling of Jin, Duke Cheng entrusted all state affairs to Zhao Dun in the very year he ascended the throne.
After Zhao Dun returned to the political stage of the Jin State, he established the position of Grand Master of the Royal Clan. The royal clan referred to the ruler's same-surname close relatives outside of the ruler himself—the ruler's sons were called princes, and their descendants were called dukes' grandsons, all belonging to the royal clan. During the Spring and Autumn period, various feudal lords had their own royal clan forces. To maintain rule and unite the vast strength of the royal clan as branches, they set up the Grand Master of the Royal Clan. The Jin State had previously eliminated its royal clan because its power threatened the ruler's authority, leading to a situation known as "Jin has no royal clan." By reestablishing the royal clan, Zhao Dun appointed his half-brother Zhao Kuo as Grand Master of the Royal Clan, establishing the Zhao family's royal clan, which allowed the Zhao family to monopolize state affairs.
After Zhao Dun stabilized his position in the state of Jin and King Zhuang of Chu quelled internal unrest to consolidate his rule, the war between Zhao Dun and King Zhuang of Chu officially began, escalating the struggle for hegemony between Jin and Chu to a fever pitch. King Zhuang of Chu launched an attack on the state of Zheng and, with overwhelming military force, threatened the state of Chen, which surrendered. Upon receiving the news, Zhao Dun swiftly dispatched troops to aid Zheng, prompting King Zhuang of Chu to withdraw. Zhao Dun then ordered the Jin army to cross through Zheng and continue southward, all the way to Chen, which bordered Chu, and launched an assault on Chen. However, due to the long-distance expedition, Zhao Dun soon ordered the troops to retreat to conserve strength, preparing to resume the campaign the following year.
In the spring of 603 BC, Zhao Dun personally took command and allied with the State of Wei to attack the State of Chen from the south. Chen, firmly aligned with Chu, resisted stubbornly, and Zhao Dun returned without success. Subsequently, King Zhuang of Chu led the Chu army to besiege the State of Zheng, which then surrendered to Chu. In reality, facing the alternating assaults from Zhao Dun and King Zhuang of Chu, Zheng's internal factions had split into pro-Jin and pro-Chu camps.
In 602 BCE, a widespread drought struck the Central Plains, leading to a temporary ceasefire between the states of Jin and Chu due to the natural disaster. The states of Zheng, Wei, and Lu successively aligned themselves with Jin. That winter, accompanied by Zhao Dun, Duke Cheng of Jin formed an alliance at Heirang with Duke Xuan of Lu, Duke Wen of Song, Duke Cheng of Wei, Duke Xiang of Zheng, and Duke Wen of Cao. Zhao Dun invited the Zhou court to send a representative, and King Ding of Zhou indeed dispatched his special envoy, Prince Shu Huan of Wang, to add luster to Duke Cheng of Jin's alliance with the feudal lords.
Zhao Dun truly proved to be the most formidable opponent King Zhuang of Chu ever faced in his lifetime; his call was answered by many, as the Central Plains feudal lords united to resist King Zhuang of Chu's northward advance, while the State of Chu only gained the support of the State of Chen. Through Zhao Dun's efforts, the State of Jin ultimately firmly seized the initiative in the struggle for hegemony between Jin and Chu.
Zhao Dun, who came after Duke Wen of Jin, was the first powerful minister to emerge in the state of Jin. Concentrating both military and political authority in his own hands, he enforced a policy of strongman rule, sustaining Jin's status as the leading hegemonic state and effectively curbing the increasingly formidable King Zhuang of Chu. Serving three successive rulers throughout his career, he wielded immense power that overshadowed the throne, weakening the monarch's authority and elevating the Zhao clan to a dominant position within Jin. This allowed Jin to marshal the full strength of the state against Chu without falling behind, earning him the reputation of being "a capable minister in times of order and a heroic talent in times of chaos."