Confucius dedicated himself to cultivating Shi (scholar-officials) and Junzi (Exemplary Persons), aiming to nurture talent for the implementation of benevolent governance (Ren Zheng) and rule by virtue (De Zhi). He placed great emphasis on both inner qualities and outer demeanor, once proposing that "only when substance and refinement are properly blended (outward appearance harmoniously matched with inner character) does one become a Junzi," holding that consistency between inner self and outward expression is what constitutes a truly refined exemplary person. Therefore, his educational approach valued both virtue and ability equally, placing equal importance on moral education and intellectual education. The Analects, in the chapter "Shu Er," states: "The Master taught four things: culture (Wen), conduct (Xing), loyalty (Zhong), and trustworthiness (Xin)."
Confucius’s most fundamental educational content was moral education, which meant strengthening the moral cultivation of his disciples. Taking Ren (Benevolence) as the highest goal, Confucius repeatedly answered his disciples’ questions in detail to help them accurately grasp and understand Ren. For example, he said, “Being resolute, firm, simple, and slow to speak is close to Ren,” meaning that being strong and upright, decisive and unpretentious, and cautious in speech can all be considered close to Ren. Confucius placed great importance on his disciples’ moral sentiments. He said, “It is difficult to be poor without resentment, but easy to be rich without arrogance.” He also said, “The ‘Guan Ju’ expresses joy without being wanton, and sorrow without being hurtful.” This indicates that personal emotions like joy, anger, sorrow, and happiness should have certain limits and not be excessive. Furthermore, “The benevolent person loves others” does not mean loving everything without principle; “The Junzi (Exemplary Person) also has things he hates,” and “Only the benevolent person can love others and hate others.” Confucius also recognized that human emotions are easily impulsive and need to be restrained and kept within proper bounds. To this end, he proposed the concept of Zhongyong (Doctrine of the Mean) as a standard to balance moral emotions, preventing the one-sidedness of “loving someone to the point of wanting them to live forever, and hating someone to the point of wanting them to die,” avoiding emotional impulsiveness or extremism, and achieving impartiality and moderation.
Confucius believed that a person of Ren (Benevolence) must have determination: "The commander of the three armies can be taken away, but the will of even a common man cannot be taken away." If a person possesses the will to seek Ren, they can attain it: "If I desire Ren, Ren is here." He said, "A determined scholar and a person of Ren will not seek to live at the expense of harming Ren; they will sacrifice themselves to achieve Ren." This means that such individuals would rather sacrifice their lives to uphold the principle of Ren than cling to life and damage it. The external expression of Ren is Li (Propriety). Confucius said, "To restrain oneself and return to Li is Ren," meaning one should exercise self-restraint and ensure all daily actions conform to Li. He also stated, "Without learning Li, you cannot establish yourself."
In his specific teaching, Confucius used the Classic of Poetry (Shijing), Book of Documents (Shangshu), Book of Rites (Liji), Book of Music (Yuejing), I Ching (Book of Changes), and Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) as instructional materials. The Classic of Poetry was primarily used in ceremonies, remonstrations, speech, and expressing aspirations through poetry. Confucius taught the Classic of Poetry with an emphasis on "gentle and sincere" poetic education, as seen in his evaluation of its first piece, "Guan Ju," as "joyful without being licentious, sorrowful without being harmful." He believed studying the Classic of Poetry could refine one's language skills, stating, "Without studying the Classic of Poetry, one cannot speak properly." The Zuo Commentary records that rulers and ministers from various states quoted or recited poems from the Classic of Poetry a total of 251 times. If a scholar-official at that time could not recite poems, he would be looked down upon. Once, explaining the importance of poetic education to his disciples, Confucius said: "Why do none of you study the Classic of Poetry? The Classic of Poetry can inspire, can help observe, can foster fellowship, and can express grievances. In close matters, it helps serve one's father; in distant matters, it helps serve one's ruler; and it broadens knowledge of the names of birds, beasts, plants, and trees." In his view, reading the Classic of Poetry could uplift emotions, observe the rise and fall of customs and folkways, build mutual understanding, offer satirical criticism of government successes and failures, and even apply its principles to serving parents, engaging in governance and serving rulers, and understanding the natural world of birds, beasts, plants, and trees. Confucius emphasized that the purpose of studying the Classic of Poetry was essentially for governance: "If a person can recite the three hundred poems and, when given government responsibilities, cannot manage them, or when sent on missions to other states, cannot respond independently, then what use is it, even if they know many poems?" He pointed out that learning the Classic of Poetry must be applied flexibly; if one merely memorizes by rote but cannot handle state affairs or independently apply it in diplomacy, reciting even many poems is useless. Among Confucius's disciples, Zi Gong (a skilled merchant and eloquent diplomat) was the best at diplomatic activities and a representative of applying the Classic of Poetry effectively, thus earning Confucius's praise.
The *Shu* refers to the *Book of Documents* (*Shangshu*), a collection of historical records regarding major political events and speeches from antiquity. Confucius used it as a textbook for politics and history, requiring his disciples to treat it as a canonical basis for governance, practicing the Dao (The Way), and establishing themselves in life. In *The Analects*, Confucius is recorded citing the *Book of Documents* three times, each time using ancient examples to illuminate the present, explaining how to govern and practice the Way.
The "Li" refers to the Yili (Book of Rites and Ceremonies), a text specifically devoted to explaining various ceremonial protocols and behavioral norms. The "Shi Li" (rites for the scholar class) constitutes a large portion of it, serving as the concrete standards for conduct and self-cultivation for the scholar-official class of that time. Confucius not only used the Li as a textual teaching material but also as an important textbook for learning the ritual skills and procedures. His education in Li (Propriety/Ritual) emphasized practical application. Because Li is the guiding principle for establishing oneself and interacting with the world, he admonished his son, Kong Li, saying: "If you do not learn Li, you have no way to establish yourself."
The "Book of Music" (Yue) was also an important teaching material in Confucius's education, but it has since been lost. Music education not only referred to learning the fundamentals of music but also included studying music theory and aesthetics. Confucius advocated governing the state through Li (Propriety) and music, using Li to regulate and restrain, and music to cultivate and influence. He integrated the "Book of Poetry" (Shi), "Book of Rites" (Li), and "Book of Music" (Yue) as one: "It is by the Poetry that the mind is aroused; it is by the Rites that the character is established; it is from Music that the refinement is completed." In Confucius's view, one must first set aspirations, then study poetry; after studying poetry, one understands Li; and only after understanding Li can one cultivate one's character through the inspiration of music.
The _I Ching (Book of Changes)_ is divided into two parts: the _Jing (Classic)_ and the _Zhuan (Commentaries)_. The content of the _Jing_ existed before Confucius, while the _Zhuan_ was completed by later Confucian scholars. In Confucius's time, the _I Ching_ was a divination text about Yin-Yang and the Eight Trigrams, with mysterious and complex content, and it was relatively well-preserved in the State of Lu. According to the _Records of the Grand Historian: The Hereditary House of Confucius_, "Confucius in his later years took delight in the _I Ching_" and "in reading the _I Ching_, he wore out the leather thongs binding the bamboo slips three times." He studied the _I Ching_ deeply and drew upon its simple dialectical ideas to educate his disciples.
The Spring and Autumn Annals (Chunqiu) was completed two years before Confucius's death and was personally compiled by him. Using the contemporary "Hundred States Spring and Autumn Annals" as a blueprint, Confucius integrated the major events from various states' historical records into a unified work. It was first used as teaching material and later organized into the version passed down to the present day. The Spring and Autumn Annals contains Confucius's social and political theories, establishing proper status distinctions, embedding praise and blame, and conveying profound meanings in subtle language. It served as an important textbook for Confucius's political and historical education of his students.
Confucius also cultivated his disciples' talents through the "Six Arts" (Liu Yi), which included Li (ritual propriety), music, archery, charioteering, calligraphy, and mathematics—these were the instruction and practice of six specific skills: performing rites, playing music, shooting arrows, driving chariots, writing, and arithmetic. These were essential basic accomplishments for the aristocratic class of the time. Therefore, most of Confucius's students were versatile and talented.